Substitution
Straw man
Replacing a claim or position with a weaker, distorted version and then refuting the substitute.
CheckAsk whether the response addresses the proposition actually made.Wikipedia definition →Reasoning, rhetoric and evidence
Vocabulary
Know the move.
Return to the claim.
A practical guide to common tactics that can obscure a proposition, misdirect a debate or make weak evidence appear stronger. Naming a tactic does not prove the underlying claim false; the claim still has to be checked.
Editorial principle
Identify the proposition audiences are being asked to believe.
Ignore an unsupported straw man, motive allegation, loaded premise or rhetorical contrast when it is not the factual proposition under review. Preserve genuine qualifiers, inspect the evidence, and attach the verdict to the central checkable claim.
Reference guide
Common debate tactics
Each external definition opens the relevant Wikipedia reference. The full CSUN catalogue is linked below.
Substitution
Substitution
Motte-and-bailey
Advancing a bold claim, retreating to a modest and easier-to-defend claim when challenged, then returning to the bold version.
CheckKeep the original and fallback propositions separate.Wikipedia definition →Substitution
Equivocation
Using a word in different senses during the same argument so the conclusion appears to follow.
CheckReplace the disputed word with a precise definition each time it appears.Wikipedia definition →Substitution
False equivalence
Treating materially different acts, claims or bodies of evidence as though they were meaningfully equal.
CheckCompare scale, evidence, context and consequences—not surface resemblance.Wikipedia definition →Distraction
Distraction
Red herring
Introducing an irrelevant issue that diverts attention from the proposition under examination.
CheckRestate the unanswered claim before considering the new topic.Wikipedia definition →Distraction
Ad hominem
Attacking a person or their circumstances instead of addressing their argument or evidence.
CheckA source's incentives can affect credibility, but they do not by themselves disprove a claim.Wikipedia definition →Distraction
Tu quoque / whataboutism
Deflecting criticism by alleging hypocrisy or pointing to another person's wrongdoing.
CheckThe comparison may deserve its own assessment, but it does not answer the original claim.Wikipedia definition →Distraction
Appeal to motive
Treating a claim as false by asserting that its speaker has a suspect or concealed motive.
CheckAssess the proposition first; assess an alleged motive only when it is specific and evidenced.Wikipedia definition →Evidence
Evidence
Cherry picking
Selecting evidence that supports a conclusion while withholding relevant evidence that points another way.
CheckCheck the full time range, comparison group, dataset and contrary findings.Wikipedia definition →Evidence
Appeal to authority
Treating a proposition as established because an authority endorses it, without examining relevant expertise or supporting evidence.
CheckExpertise must match the subject, and the underlying evidence still matters.Wikipedia definition →Evidence
Appeal to popularity
Presenting widespread belief or electoral popularity as proof that a factual proposition is true.
CheckPopularity measures acceptance, not factual accuracy.Wikipedia definition →Evidence
Appeal to ignorance
Claiming something is true because it has not been disproved, or false because it has not been proved.
CheckIdentify who bears the burden of proof and what evidence would satisfy it.Wikipedia definition →Evidence
Circular reasoning
Using the conclusion being asserted as part of the proof offered for that conclusion.
CheckAsk whether any premise is independently supported.Wikipedia definition →Causation
Causation
Post hoc
Inferring that one event caused another merely because it happened first.
CheckLook for a mechanism, controls, alternative causes and evidence beyond timing.Wikipedia definition →Causation
Slippery slope
Claiming that a first step will trigger an escalating chain of consequences without establishing the links.
CheckTest every step in the proposed causal chain separately.Wikipedia definition →Pressure
Pressure
False dilemma
Presenting two choices as exhaustive when other plausible options exist.
CheckList the omitted alternatives before accepting the forced choice.Wikipedia definition →Pressure
Loaded question
A question containing an unproved assumption that a direct answer would appear to concede.
CheckSeparate and test the embedded premise before answering.Wikipedia definition →Pressure
Moving the goalposts
Changing the evidentiary standard after the requested evidence has been supplied.
CheckRecord the original criterion and require a reason for changing it.Wikipedia definition →Pressure
Gish gallop
Presenting many weak or unsupported assertions faster than they can be checked or answered.
CheckBreak the list into claims and require evidence for each one.Wikipedia definition →Pressure
Argument by repetition
Repeating a proposition until familiarity is mistaken for corroboration.
CheckCount independent evidence, not the number of times the assertion appears.Wikipedia definition →Further reading
Broader fallacy catalogues
The terminology is a diagnostic aid, not a shortcut to a verdict. California State University, Northridge provides a wider debate-oriented catalogue, while Wikipedia maintains a broad index of formal and informal fallacies.